Of course, exposing Joan as a fraud, or as someone deluded by evil spirits, would also have struck at the legitimacy of Charles VII.”According to the trial transcript, Joan was questioned repeatedly not only about the voices she heard, but on why she chose to dress as a man.According to Hobbin’s trial translation, they declared: “Whenever the deadly poison of heresy infects a member of the Church, who is then transformed into a member of Satan, utmost care must be taken to keep the contagion of the disease from spreading to other parts of the mystical body of Christ.”“Joan of Arc was tried as a heretic not because she was a woman, though that factor played an important part, nor because she heard voices, but because she heard voices telling her to attack the English,” Hobbins writes. All 27 trial masters pronounced her a relapsed heretic.“Some scholars have dismissed Joan’s trial as a travesty of justice...” Hobbins writes.

But four days later, she said the voices had returned and she was again found dressed in men’s clothing. This was a Catholic Church led movement and I believe the Inquisition is now the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Ironically, Bruno’s soaring view of the cosmos—more correct than Copernicus—stemmed from religious beliefs.Support our award-winning coverage of advances in science & technology.In 1597, Bruno was confronted by inquisitors, including  the authoritative theologian Robert Bellarmine. He didn’t defend an esoteric belief in immaterial worlds. Yet in nine books Bruno did assert his cosmology of many worlds. But a series of missteps, including her failure to liberate Paris followed, and on May 23, 1430, she was captured by the Duke of Burgundy’s men, jailed for more than a year and put on trial for charges including heresy, witchcraft and violating divine law for dressing like a man.“As the opening of the trial record noted, ‘The report has now become well known in many places that this woman, utterly disregarding what is honourable in the female sex, breaking the bounds of modesty, and forgetting all female decency, has disgracefully put on the clothing of the male sex, a striking and vile monstrosity. After such tortures, the condemned was almost always strangled, then burned at the stake.

Nonetheless, some famous Copernican scientists believed that too, including Kepler and William Gilbert.Scientific American Space & Physics is a roundup of the most important stories about the universe and beyondIronically, every exoplanet confirms not the cosmology of Kepler, but of Giordano Bruno, the Italian philosopher who was burned alive in Rome, in 1600, as a heretic.The views expressed are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily those of Scientific American.Bruno was condemned for several heresies, but the one about multiple worlds was the strongest case against him. However, despite her haters and skeptics, Joan of Arc was undoubtedly successful. “The judge, Pierre Cauchon, has been denounced as a tool of the English who was willing to sacrifice Joan to further his own career.”Convincing Charles to let her fight—and dressed as a man—Joan led the liberation of Orleans, triumphed with other victories against the English, and soon Charles VII was crowned.

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